Critical
thinking is a way of
deciding whether a claim is true, partially true, or false. Critical thinking
is a process that leads to skills that can be learned, mastered and used.
Critical thinking is a tool by which one can come about reasoned conclusions
based on a reasoned process. This process incorporates passion and creativity,
but guides it with discipline, practicality and common sense. It can be traced
in the West to ancient Greece with its Socratic method and in the East to ancient India with the Buddhist kalama suttaand abhidharma literature. Critical thinking is an important
component of many fields such as education, politics, business, science and the
arts.
Critical thinking has
been defined as:
·
"the mental process
of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing,
and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion" [2]
·
"reasonable reflective
thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do"[4]
·
"purposeful,
self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation,
and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that
judgment is based"[5]
·
"includes a
commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs"[6]
·
in critical social theory:
commitment to the social and political practice of participatory democracy,
willingness to imagine or remain open to considering alternative perspectives,
willingness to integrate new or revised perspectives into our ways of thinking
and acting, and willingness to foster criticality in others.[7]
·
the skill and propensity
to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism (McPeck, 1981)
·
disciplined, self-directed
thinking which exemplifies the perfection of thinking appropriate to a
particular mode of domain of thinking (Paul, 1989, p. 214)
·
thinking about one's
thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise the efficiency of,
and recognize errors and biases in one's own thinking. Critical thinking is not
'hard' thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than 'improving'
one's own thinking). Critical thinking is inward-directed with the intent of
maximizing the rationality of the thinker. One does not use critical thinking
to solve problems - one uses critical thinking to improve one's process of
thinking.[8]
Critical thinking calls
for the ability to:
·
Recognize problems, to
find workable means for meeting those problems
·
Understand the
importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem solving
·
Gather and marshal
pertinent (relevant) information
·
Recognize unstated
assumptions and values
·
Interpret data, to
appraise evidence and evaluate arguments
·
Recognize the existence
(or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions
·
Draw warranted
conclusions and generalizations
·
Put to test the
conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives
·
Reconstruct one's
patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience
·
Render accurate
judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life
In sum:
"A persistent
effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the
evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends."[10]
The habits of mind that
characterize a person strongly disposed toward critical thinking include a
desire to follow reason and evidence wherever they may lead, a systematic
approach to problem solving, inquisitiveness, even-handedness, and confidence
in reasoning.[11]
According to a definition analysis
by Kompf & Bond (2001), critical thinking involves problem solving,
decision making, metacognition, rationality, rational thinking,
reasoning, knowledge, intelligence and also a moral component such as
reflective thinking. Critical thinkers therefore need to have reached a level
of maturity in their development, possess a certain attitude as well as a set
of taught skills.
Edward Glaser proposed
that the ability to think critically involves three elements:[10]
1.
An attitude of being
disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come
within the range of one's experiences
2.
Knowledge of the methods
of logical inquiry and reasoning
3.
Some skill in applying
those methods.
Educational programs
aimed at developing critical thinking in children and adult learners,
individually or in group problem solving and decision making contexts, continue
to address these same three central elements.
Contemporary cognitive
psychology regards human reasoning as a complex process that is both reactive
and reflective.[12]
The relationship between
critical thinking skills and critical thinking dispositions is an empirical
question. Some people have both in abundance, some have skills but not the
disposition to use them, some are disposed but lack strong skills, and some
have neither. A measure of critical thinking dispositions is the California
Measure of Mental Motivation.[13]
In schooling
John Dewey is one of many
educational leaders who recognized that a curriculum aimed at building thinking
skills would benefit the individual learner, the community, and the entire
democracy.[14]
Critical thinking is
significant in academics due to being significant in learning. Critical
thinking is significant in the learning process of internalization, in the construction of basic ideas,
principles, and theories inherent in content. And critical thinking is
significant in the learning process of application, whereby those ideas,
principles, and theories are implemented effectively as they become relevant in
learners' lives. Good teachers cultivate critical thinking (intellectually
engaged thinking) at every stage of learning, including initial learning. This
process of intellectual engagement is at the heart of the Oxford, Durham, Cambridge and London School of
Economics tutorials. The tutor
questions the students, often in a Socratic manner (see Socratic questioning). The
key is that the teacher who fosters critical thinking fosters reflectiveness in
students by asking questions that stimulate thinking essential to the
construction of knowledge.
Each discipline adapts
its use of critical thinking concepts and principles (principles like in
school). The core concepts are always there, but they are embedded in
subject-specific content. For students to learn content, intellectual
engagement is crucial. All students must do their own thinking, their own
construction of knowledge. Good teachers recognize this and therefore focus on
the questions, readings, activities that stimulate the mind to take ownership
of key concepts and principles underlying the subject.
In the UK school system, Critical Thinking is offered as a subject that 16- to 18-year-olds
can take as an A-Level. Under the OCR exam board, students can sit two exam papers for the AS:
"Credibility of Evidence" and "Assessing and Developing
Argument". The full Advanced GCE is now available: in addition to the two AS
units, candidates sit the two papers "Resolution of Dilemmas" and
"Critical Reasoning". The A-level tests candidates on their ability
to think critically about, and analyze, arguments on their deductive or
inductive validity, as well as producing their own arguments. It also tests
their ability to analyze certain related topics such as credibility and ethical
decision-making. However, due to its comparative lack of subject content, many
universities do not accept it as a main A-level for admissions.[15] Nevertheless, the AS is
often useful in developing reasoning skills, and the full Advanced GCE is useful for degree courses in politics,
philosophy, history or theology, providing the skills required for critical analysis
that are useful, for example, in biblical study.
There used to also be an Advanced Extension
Award offered in Critical
Thinking in the UK, open to any A-level student regardless of whether they have
the Critical Thinking A-level.Cambridge
International Examinations have an A-level in Thinking Skills.[16]
From 2008, Assessment and
Qualifications Alliance has also been offering an A-level Critical Thinking specification;[17]
OCR exam board have also modified
theirs for 2008. Many examinations for university entrance set by universities,
on top of A-level examinations, also include a critical thinking component,
such as the LNAT,
the UKCAT, the BioMedical Admissions
Test and the Thinking Skills
Assessment.
In its 2012 platform,
the Republican Party of Texas rejected the teaching of
"Higher Order Thinking Skills... critical thinking skills and similar
programs," giving as a reason that this sort of teaching has "the
purpose of challenging the student’s fixed beliefs and undermining parental
authority." Media ridicule led to a response from RPT Communications
DirectorChris Elam that the inclusion of
the term "critical thinking skills" was an oversight which cannot be
corrected until 2014, when the next state convention will occur.[18][19]
Research
in efficiency of critical thinking instruction
In 1995, a meta-analysis of the
literature on teaching effectiveness in higher education was undertaken.[20] The
study noted concerns from higher education, politicians and business that
higher education was failing to meet society's requirements for well-educated
citizens. It concluded that although faculty may aspire to develop students'
thinking skills, in practice they have tended to aim at facts and concepts
utilizing lowest levels of cognition, rather than developing intellect or
values.
Importance
Critical thinking is an important
element of all professional fields and academic disciplines (by referencing
their respective sets of permissible questions, evidence sources, criteria,
etc.). Within the framework of scientific skepticism,
the process of critical thinking involves the careful acquisition and
interpretation of information and use of it to reach a well-justified conclusion. The concepts and
principles of critical thinking can be applied to any context or case but only
by reflecting upon the nature of that application. Critical thinking forms,
therefore, a system of related, and overlapping, modes of thought such as
anthropological thinking, sociological thinking, historical thinking, political
thinking, psychologicalthinking, philosophical thinking,
mathematical thinking, chemical thinking, biological thinking, ecological
thinking, legal thinking, ethical thinking, musical thinking, thinking like a
painter, sculptor, engineer, business person, etc. In other words, though
critical thinking principles are universal, their application to disciplines
requires a process of reflectivecontextualization.
Critical thinking is considered
important in the academic fields because it enables one to analyze, evaluate,
explain, and restructure their thinking, thereby decreasing the risk of
adopting, acting on, or thinking with, a false belief. However, even with
knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, mistakes can happen
due to a thinker's inability to apply the methods or because of character
traits such as egocentrism. Critical thinking includes
identification of prejudice, bias,
propaganda, self-deception, distortion,misinformation, etc. Given research in cognitive psychology,
some educators believe
that schools should focus on teaching their students critical thinking skills and cultivation of intellectual
traits.[citation needed]
Socratic method is defined as "a prolonged series
of questions and answers which refutes a moral assertion by leading an opponent
to draw a conclusion that contradicts his own viewpoint."[21] Critical
thinking skills through Socratic method taught in schools help create leaders.
Instructors that promote critical thinking skills can benefit the students by
increasing their confidence and creating a repeatable thought process to
question and confidently approach a solution. Students also accomplish
follower-ship skills that can be used to probe the leader's foundations.
Critical thinking skills through Socratic method serve to produce professionals
that are self-governing. However, Socratic method for
critical thinking skills can become confusing if an instructor or leader uses
the method too rigidly, the student may not know what the instructor or leader
wants from him. An instructor or leader may disillusion the students if he uses
particular style of questioning. Instructors must reveal their reasoning behind
the questions in order to guide the students in the right direction.
"Socratic method can serve twenty-first-century leaders to instruct students,
mentor protégés, motivate followers, advise other leaders, and influence
peers."[21]
Critical thinking skills can be
used to help nurses during the assessment process. Through the use of critical
thinking, nurses can question, evaluate, and reconstruct the nursing care
process by challenging the established theory and practice. Critical thinking
skills can help nurses problem solve, reflect, and make a conclusive decision
about the current situation they face. Critical thinking creates "new
possibilities for the development of the nursing knowledge."[22] Due
to the sociocultural, environmental, and political issues that are affecting
healthcare delivery, it would be helpful to embody new techniques in nursing.
Nurses can also engage their critical thinking skills through the Socratic
method of dialogue and reflection. This practice standard is even part of some
regulatory organizations such as the College of Nurses of Ontario Professional
Standards for Continuing Competence (2006). It requires nurses to engage in Reflective Practice and keep records of this continued
professional development for possible review by the College.
Critical thinking also is
considered important for human rights
education for toleration. The Declaration
of Principles on Tolerance adopted
by UNESCO in
1995 affirms that "education for tolerance could aim at countering factors
that lead to fear and exclusion of others, and could help young people to
develop capacities for independent judgement,critical thinking and ethical reasoning."[23]
There is currently a growing
recognition that the Western emphasis on critical thinking has a broader and
deeper impact than relates simply to cognitive skills. Le Cornu (2009) argues a
case which links critical thinking to a heightened individualism which she
considers is not so prevalent in the East, and suggests that education at all
levels should train people in three principal types of thinking and reflection:
receptive, appreciative and critical.[citation needed]
References
2.
Dictionary.com, "critical thinking," in Dictionary.com's
21st Century Lexicon. Source location: Dictionary.com, LLC. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical thinking.
Available: http://dictionary.reference.com.
Accessed: June 22, 2013.
3.
Dictionary.com, "critical thinking," in Dictionary.com
Unabridged. Source location: Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical thinking.
Available: http://dictionary.reference.com.
Accessed: June 22, 2013.
4.
Ennis, Robert (20 June 2002). "A Super-Streamlined Conception
of Critical Thinking"http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/SSConcCTApr3.html Retrieved
January 18, 2013.
5.
Facione, Peter A. Critical
Thinking: What It is and Why It Counts,Insightassessment.com,
2011, p. 26
6.
Mulnix, J. W. (2010). Thinking critically about critical thinking.
Educational Philosophy and Theory. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x,
p. 471
7.
Raiskums, B.W. (2008). An Analysis of the Concept
Criticality in Adult Education.Capella University. ISBN 0549778349[page needed]
8.
Carmichael, Kirby; letter to Olivetti, Laguna Salada Union
School District, May, 1997
10.
^ Jump up to:a b Edward
M. Glaser (1941). An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking.
New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. ISBN 0-404-55843-7.
11.
The National Assessment of College Student Learning: Identification
of the Skills to be Taught, Learned, and Assessed, NCES 94–286, US Dept of
Education, Addison Greenwod (Ed), Sal Carrallo (PI). See also, Critical
thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational
assessment and instruction. ERIC Document No. ED 315–423
12.
Solomon, S.A. (2002) "Two Systems of Reasoning,"
in Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment,
Govitch, Griffin, Kahneman (Eds), Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-79679-8; Thinking and Reasoning in Human Decision
Making: The Method of Argument and Heuristic Analysis, Facione and Facione,
2007, California Academic Press. ISBN
978-1-891557-58-3
14.
Dewey, John. (1910). How we think. Lexington, MA:
D.C. Heath & Co.
18.
Strauss, Valerie. "Texas GOP
rejects ‘critical thinking’ skills. Really." Washington
Post, 9 July 2012.
19.
Lach, Eric. "Texas
GOP's 2012 Platform Accidentally Opposes Teaching Of 'Critical Thinking Skills' TPM
Muckraker, 29 June 2012.
20.
Lion Gardiner, Redesigning Higher Education: Producing Dramatic
Gains in Student Learning, in conjunction with: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher
Education, 1995
21.
Jump up to:a b Leadership
by the Socratic Method(2007)http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj07/sum07/tucker.html
22.
Catching the wave: understanding the concept of critical thinking
(1999)doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1999.00925.x
23.
Declaration of Principles on Tolerance, Article 4, 3
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